Ecological and Environmental Anthropology
Volume Two, Number Two
ISSN 1554-2408

Ecological and Environmental Anthropology, an online, peer-reviewed publication housed within the Department of Anthropology at the University of Georgia.

Articles

Human-Nonhuman Primate Interconnections and Their Relevance to Anthropology
Agustin Fuentes

The human-nonhuman primate interface is a core component in conservation and an emerging area of discourse across anthropology. There is a growing recognition of the relevance of long-term sympatry between human and nonhuman primates. Until recently these relationships received limited attention in the anthropological literature and in the primatological construction of models for the behavior and evolution of primate societies. Most socioecological investigations into primate groups and human populations do not incorporate their interactions (beyond predation or crop raiding), potential pathogen sharing, or the role of the anthropogenically impacted environment. Current relationships between humans and nonhuman primates are generally assumed to be rooted in conflict over land use and relatively recent, and thus have limited evolutionary and long term ecological impact. To date, too few studies have attempted to incorporate specific aspects of human cultural conceptualizations of nature and nonhuman primates into explanations/examination of either human or nonhuman primate behavioral and ecological patterns. Ongoing research projects and a growing number of publications demonstrate that long-term sympatry between human and nonhuman primates results in a complex web of behavioral, ecological, epidemiological, and economic relationships, suggesting a need for increased attention by anthropologists to this topic. This essay introduces a set of articles in this issue of Ecological and Environmental Anthropology that illustrate theoretical and practical considerations suggesting the need for increased focus of the anthropological gaze towards the human-nonhuman primate interface.

Primate Sanctuaries, Taxonomy and Survival: a Case Study from South Africa.
Paul Grobler, Magali Jacquier, Helene deNys, Mary Blair, Patricia L. Whitten and Trudy R. Turner

Abstract: The relationship between humans and non-human primates in South Africa is problematic. On the one hand, vervet monkeys were formerly designated vermin species and could be destroyed at will. On the other hand, many people keep young vervets as pets even though this is illegal, and the animals are confiscated if discovered. Sanctuaries were established to accommodate large numbers of orphaned and confiscated animals. Owners of some of these sanctuaries attempt to establish normal troop structures in the hopes of releasing these animals back into the wild and relieving overcrowding. However, local farmers, fearing crop damage, resist this release. Nature conservation authorities also resist release fearing possible disruption of natural patterns of genetic variability even though there is no consensus on the number of subspecies or evolutionary significant units among South African vervets. We have designed a sampling strategy to aid in resolving some of the taxonomic issues preventing release. Data from microsatellite loci suggest no genetic structuring linked to geographic distribution. Coefficients of population differentiation (AMOVA) show that 96.72% of variation within South Africa occurs within populations. Addition of a reference group from Kenya in East Africa still yielded a within population value of 90.20%, suggesting limited differences between populations. This information can contribute to informed management decisions, since there is no evidence from the populations sampled to date to support the hypothesis of genetic structuring within the overall South African vervet monkey population. There is therefore no genetic support for the current restrictions on the mixing of animals at sanctuaries or releases into the wild.

Human and Non-human Primate Co-existence in the Neotropics: a Preliminary View of Some Agricultural Practices as a Complement for Primate Conservation
Alejandro Estrada

Abstract: In this paper I address the general perception that agricultural activities are the principal threat to primate biodiversity in the tropics and argue that in Neotropical landscapes some agricultural practices may favor primate population persistence, and that this situation merits attention and investigation. To explore these issues, I examined three interrelated pressures upon tropical forests for the Mesoamerican and Amazon basin regions: human population growth trends, levels of poverty and human development and deforestation rates. I also present relevant results of recent surveys completed on the presence and activities of primate populations in agroecosystems in several landscapes in Mesoamerica. I further assess the possible benefits of primates to agroecosystems, and stress the value for primate conservation of some agricultural practices in the Neotropics. Human population in Mesoamerica (ca 48 million) and Amazon basin (ca 300 million) regions has been growing at a rate of 2.6-3.0% per year since the 1950's, and it is expected that populations will double in size in 25-35 years. According the United Nation's Human Development Index, high poverty and low human development are typical of the human population in both regions. Pressures upon the land for living space and for food production are paralleled by high deforestation rates in both regions, ca 440,000 ha/yr in Mesoamerica and ca 3.5 million ha/yr in the Amazon basin. Our surveys in landscapes in Mexico, Guatemala and Costa Rica found populations of five of the eight primate species existing in Mesoamerica, temporarily or permanently living in an array of 15 agroecosystems, suggesting these habitats may be important for their persistence. With this information at hand, I further assess the possible benefits of presence and activities of primates to agroecosystems, stress the value for primate conservation of some agricultural practices in the Neotropics, and point out needed areas for further investigation.

A Preliminary Review of Neotropical Primates in the Subsistence and Symbolism of Indigenous Lowland South American Peoples
Loretta Cormier

Abstract: This article provides a review of selected literature of nonhuman primates in the subsistence and symbolism of indigenous lowland South American groups. While few works have focused specifically on the relationship between human and nonhuman primates in Amazonia and the surrounding areas, a number of ethnographic works do incorporate information about the roles of monkeys in varied groups. The section on subsistence focuses on the use of primates as food, including preferences, avoidances, and taboos. The section on symbolism focuses on the role of monkeys in myths, folklore, and in delineating the humanity/animality divide (Reprint from Ecological and Environmental Anthropology Vol. 2 No. 1, 2006).

Coexistence and Exclusion Between Humans and Monkeys in Japan: Is Either Really Possible?
David S. Sprague and Nobusuke Iwasaki

Abstract: The Japanese people face a cultural and ecological challenge in seeking a new relationship between themselves and the Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata). Monkeys are a major agricultural pest. Monkey habitat often lies within a short distance from fields and villages, and vice versa, especially in mountainous areas. The idealized solution is a form of coexistence where humans and monkeys somehow negotiate a harmonious compromise. A word used often in Japanese is kyosei, to live in common, implying a more intimate relation than mere side-by-side coexistence. In practice, kyosei is a word used by policy makers or scholars, but less often used by primatologists and agricultural officials. Primatologists aid agricultural extension programs that encourage farmers to implement practical measures to reduce the attractiveness of farmland and villages as feeding sites to monkeys. However, agricultural extension programs may be operationalizing kyosei by encouraging rural communities to reformulate their relationship with monkeys.

Human Dimensions of Northern Muriqui Conservation Efforts
Karen B. Strier, Jean P. Boubli, Francisco B. Pontual, and Sérgio L. Mendes

Abstract: The northern muriqui (Brachyteles hypoxanthus) is endemic to Brazil's Atlantic Forest, and it ranks among the most critically endangered primates in the world. Roughly 25% of the species is found in the 957 ha forest at the Estação Biológica de Caratinga/RPPN-Feliciano Miguel Abdala, in Minas Gerais, Brazil. The long-term research and conservation efforts at this site have received considerable attention, and public awareness and educational campaigns about northern muriquis have been highly effective. Nonetheless, very little about the human dimensions of these efforts have been explicitly described. In this paper, we focus on three distinct, but interconnected dimensions: i) the role of training Brazilian students on the research to build local capacity; ii) the multiple levels of interactions among researchers and different spheres of the local farming community, which have extended over time from the family that owns the farm on which the forest is situated, to the families that work on this farm, to the farmers who live and work in the surrounding community; and iii) the development of partnerships involving national and international nongovernmental organizations and the Brazilian government. We conclude by describing the synergist interactions between each of these human dimensions, which have contributed to both the research and conservation of northern muriquis at this site. We also consider the ways in which some of the specifics of this particular "case study" might be applicable to other species of primates elsewhere.

One Reserve, Three Primates: Applying a Holistic Approach to Understand the Interconnections Among Ring-tailed Lemurs (Lemur catta), Verreaux's Sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi), and Humans (Homo sapiens) at Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, Madagascar
James E. Loudon, Michelle L. Sauther, Krista D. Fish, Mandala Hunter-Ishikawa, Youssouf Jacky Ibrahim

Abstract: We applied cultural anthropological, ethological, and parasitological methodologies to investigate the interplay among three primate species, ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta), Verreaux's sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi), and humans (Homo sapiens) who live within the same habitat (i.e. in sympatry) around the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, Madagascar. Through a fusion of these methodologies we hope to provide a holistic understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of human-nonhuman primate sympatry. Interviews and questionnaires provided us with initial insights regarding the local peoples' attitudes toward sympatric strepsirrhine primates. Origin myths indicate a close association between humans, ring-tailed lemurs, and Verreaux's sifaka, which may serve as an important basis for positive conservation perspectives among the local people. These include lemur hunting taboos and special ancestral forests that are protected against deforestation. However, paleontological data indicate that these cultural perceptions may be of recent origin.

Close human-nonhuman primate associations can also have negative effects. We found that some nonhuman primate behavioral activities appear associated with increasing parasite loads, and may act as potential avenues of parasite transmission. Fecal analyses revealed that groups of ring-tailed lemurs that frequented the camp, and interact on a regular basis with humans harbor more endoparasites. These lemur "camp" groups engaged in coprophagy (fecal ingestion) of human, dog (Canis familiaris), and zebu (Bos indicus) fecal matter. In contrast, analyses of Verreaux's sifaka fecal matter revealed no parasites. Verreaux's sifaka were rarely terrestrial, generally avoided humans, and were not observed engaging in coprophagy. This suggests that each strepsirrhines species' behavioral patterns and socioecology directly affect its likelihood of acquiring parasitic infections, and this is currently being studied in more depth at the site.

We feel that incorporating local people into conservation initiatives are vital for success. This requires an understanding of human-nonhuman primate interconnections, the perspective of local peoples regarding their surroundings, knowledge of nonhuman primate behavior, and epidemiological factors.

Ethnoprimatology: Towards Reconciliation of Biological and Cultural Anthropology
Erin P. Riley

Abstract: One of the hallmarks of the discipline of anthropology is its holistic approach to the study of what it means to be human. A perennial challenge to the discipline, however, is the question of whether biological and cultural anthropology can truly coexist given their traditionally disparate epistemologies and methodologies. In this paper, I argue that the emerging field of ethnoprimatology, which focuses on the ecological and cultural interconnections between human and nonhuman primates, has real potential to bridge these two subfields. I support my argument by discussing the theoretical rationale of an ethnoprimatological approach with regard to the notion of "natural environments" in primate ecology and conservation, as well as in anthropology in general. I also discuss the practical rationale of such an approach in the contemporary era where anthropologists and others are increasingly realizing that conservation needs to take place within a broader ecological framework that includes the human dimension. By drawing from recent research in ethnoprimatology, I discuss the relevance and power of specific methodologies from biological anthropology, cultural anthropology, and conservation management in making this a multifaceted, integrative, and robust approach to anthropological inquiry.